El ‘arte’ de la guerra: un análisis del armamento de las guerras civiles yoruba del siglo XIX

Authors

  • Akin Adejuwon Obafemi Awolowo University

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.53351/ruhm.v8i17.570

Keywords:

arte armamentístico, armas, guerras civiles, yoruba, tierras yorubas del noreste

Abstract

Sin lugar a dudas, el siglo XIX fue uno de los periodos más turbulentos en la historia del pueblo yoruba. En su mayor parte, el periodo estuvo definido por la revolución y la lucha por la independencia llevada a cabo por diferentes autoridades. La guerra fue un factor crucial durante este periodo, y en la mayoría de los casos el elemento determinante en su resolución fue el armamento empleado. Este artículo busca ahondar en las guerras civiles acontecidas en las tierras yoruba, centrándose en algunas localidades concretas de la zona noreste. Así, rastrea la evolución del sistema armamentístico yoruba a través de los documentos históricos y los útiles preservados en distintos museos, ya que algunas de las armas empleadas durante las guerras civiles yoruba fueron identificadas y estudiadas como muestras artísticas de la cultura artesanal y material. El artículo concluye con una ponderación de los posibles efectos de síntesis resultantes del conocimiento de otro tipo de material bélico procedente del extranjero, al tiempo que sugiere que las guerras civiles yoruba del siglo XIX revolucionaron de forma muy relevante el armamento yoruba debido a que el contacto con los europeos permitió la introducción de armas mucho más mortíferas, especialmente desde el punto de vista del incremento exponencial de la mortandad bélica. No obstante, la introducción de estas armas europeas no eliminó por completo las armas locales, ya que ambas coexistieron incluso hasta el siglo XX. De este modo, la contribución más relevante que realiza el artículo se deriva del análisis de las armas empleadas en el desarrollo de las guerras civiles yoruba del siglo XIX, sobre todo mediante el estudio de su evolución. Este enfoque se articula independientemente del modo en que el empleo de estas armas influyó el curso de dichos conflictos, como la obtención de la victoria por parte de las fuerzas aliadas en la Guerra Owu de 1923 o en la Guerra de Kiriji de 1876-1893. Para ello, el artículo emplea fuentes orales y escritas, así como importantes útiles encontrados en los palacios yoruba nororientales y útiles preservados en los museos.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biography

  • Akin Adejuwon, Obafemi Awolowo University

    Akin Adejuwon is the Curator of the Martin Aworinlewo Odeyemi Museum of Antiquities and Contemporary African Art and the Wole Soyinka Museum, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Between 2014 and 2017, he was the (Director-General) of the National Troupe, Federal Republic of Nigeria.

    Adejuwon is an associate lecturer in the Department of Fine and Applied Arts and a co- editor, of IFE-Annals, a Journal of Institute of Cultural Studies in Obafemi Awolowo University.

    He holds a B.Sc. in Graphic Arts, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, a Master of Philosophy degree in Cultural History and a Master of Arts in African Art Studies from Obafemi Awolowo University. The core of his research is the interpretation of pre- colonial Yoruba history through the visual and performative arts of Yoruba palaces. His area of studio specialisation is Graphic Design and Production of 2-D (Disney type) Cartoon Animation.

References

A. OGUNTUYI: History of Ekiti from the Beginning to 1939, Ibadan, Bisi Books, 1979.

Isaac AKINJOGBIN: “The Causes of the 19th Century Yoruba Civil Wars,” in Adeagbo AKINJOGBIN, (ed.), War and Peace in Yorubaland 1793-1893, Ibadan, Heinemann Educational Books Plc, 1998, pp. 138-146.

Isaac AKINJOGBIN: Dahomey and Its Neighbour, 1708-1818, Cambridge University Press, 1967.

Jacob EGHAREVBA: A Short History of Benin, Ibadan, Ibadan University Press,1968.

Ade AJAYI: “Fundamental Causes of the 19th Century Yoruba Wars,” in Adeagbo AKINJOGBIN (ed.), War and Peace in Yorubaland 1793-1893, Ibadan, Heinemann Educational Books Plc, 1998 pp. 145-146.

Ade AJAYI and Robert SMITH (eds.): Yoruba Warfare in the 19th Century, Ibadan, Ibadan University Press in Association with the Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan and the Cambridge University Press, 1971.

Ade AJAYI and Stephen AKINTOYE: “Yorubaland in the 19th Century,” in Obaro IKIME (ed.), Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan, Heinemann, 1980.

John PEMBERTON III: “Art and Rituals for Yoruba Sacred Kings”, Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies, 15:2 (1989) pp. 96-111, 174.

Manuel BARCIA: “Weapons from their land”: Arming strategies and practices among West African-born soldiers in early nineteenth-century Bahia and Cuba, A Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies, Vol 39. No. 3 (2018), pp. 479-496.

Rowland ABIODUN: Yoruba Art and Language Seeking the African in African Art, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2014.

R. A. KEA: “Firearms and Warfare on the Gold and Slave Coast from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries” in Journal of African History, XII: 1 (1971) p.185.

Robert SMITH: “Yoruba Armament”, The Journal of African History, Vol. 8. No. 1 (1967) pp. 92- 98.

S. ADERINTO: Guns and Society in Colonial Nigeria: Firearms, Culture and Public Order, Indiana, Indiana University Press, 2018.

Stephen AKINTOYE: Revolution and Power Politics in Yorubaland 1840-1893, Ibadan, Longman, 1971.

Samuel JOHNSON: History of the Yorubas from the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the British Protectorate, Lagos, CSS Bookshops Ltd. 2009.

Saburi BIOBAKU: Sources of Yoruba History, London, Oxford University Press, 1974.

Toyin FALOLA et al. (eds.): History of Nigeria 2: Nigeria in the Nineteenth Century, Lagos, Longman, 1991.

Toyin FALOLA and G.O OGUNTOMISIN: “Military Leadership and Political Structures: Yoruba Warlords of the Nineteenth Century” in Robin LAW (ed.), The Journal of African History, Vol.43, Issue 02, (2002,) pp.313-376

T.M ILESANMI, “The Yoruba Worldview on Women and Warfare”, in Toyin FALOLA and Robin LAW eds., Warfare and Diplomacy in Nigeria, Madison: African Studies Program, University of Wisconsin, 1994

Williams DENNIS: Icon and Image: A Study of Sacred and Secular forms of African Classical art, London, Penguin Book Ltd.,1974.

Downloads

Published

2019-12-16

Issue

Vol. 8 No. 17 (2019): Terrorismo de Estado en Latinoamérica durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX

Section

Estudios

License

Copyright (c) 2019 University Journal of Military History

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License

By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined below), You accept and agree to be bound by the terms and conditions of this Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License ("Public License"). To the extent this Public License may be interpreted as a contract, You are granted the Licensed Rights in consideration of Your acceptance of these terms and conditions, and the Licensor grants You such rights in consideration of benefits the Licensor receives from making the Licensed Material available under these terms and conditions.

Section 1 – Definitions.

  1. Adapted Material means material subject to Copyright and Similar Rights that is derived from or based upon the Licensed Material and in which the Licensed Material is translated, altered, arranged, transformed, or otherwise modified in a manner requiring permission under the Copyright and Similar Rights held by the Licensor. For purposes of this Public License, where the Licensed Material is a musical work, performance, or sound recording, Adapted Material is always produced where the Licensed Material is synched in timed relation with a moving image.
  2. Copyright and Similar Rights means copyright and/or similar rights closely related to copyright including, without limitation, performance, broadcast, sound recording, and Sui Generis Database Rights, without regard to how the rights are labeled or categorized. For purposes of this Public License, the rights specified in Section 2(b)(1)-(2) are not Copyright and Similar Rights.
  3. Effective Technological Measures means those measures that, in the absence of proper authority, may not be circumvented under laws fulfilling obligations under Article 11 of the WIPO Copyright Treaty adopted on December 20, 1996, and/or similar international agreements.
  4. Exceptions and Limitations means fair use, fair dealing, and/or any other exception or limitation to Copyright and Similar Rights that applies to Your use of the Licensed Material.
  5. Licensed Material means the artistic or literary work, database, or other material to which the Licensor applied this Public License.
  6. Licensed Rights means the rights granted to You subject to the terms and conditions of this Public License, which are limited to all Copyright and Similar Rights that apply to Your use of the Licensed Material and that the Licensor has authority to license.
  7. Licensor means the individual(s) or entity(ies) granting rights under this Public License.
  8. NonCommercial means not primarily intended for or directed towards commercial advantage or monetary compensation. For purposes of this Public License, the exchange of the Licensed Material for other material subject to Copyright and Similar Rights by digital file-sharing or similar means is NonCommercial provided there is no payment of monetary compensation in connection with the exchange.
  9. Share means to provide material to the public by any means or process that requires permission under the Licensed Rights, such as reproduction, public display, public performance, distribution, dissemination, communication, or importation, and to make material available to the public including in ways that members of the public may access the material from a place and at a time individually chosen by them.
  10. Sui Generis Database Rights means rights other than copyright resulting from Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases, as amended and/or succeeded, as well as other essentially equivalent rights anywhere in the world.
  11. You means the individual or entity exercising the Licensed Rights under this Public License. Your has a corresponding meaning.

Section 2 – Scope.

  1. License grant.
    1. Subject to the terms and conditions of this Public License, the Licensor hereby grants You a worldwide, royalty-free, non-sublicensable, non-exclusive, irrevocable license to exercise the Licensed Rights in the Licensed Material to:
      1. reproduce and Share the Licensed Material, in whole or in part, for NonCommercial purposes only; and
      2. produce and reproduce, but not Share, Adapted Material for NonCommercial purposes only.
    2. Exceptions and Limitations. For the avoidance of doubt, where Exceptions and Limitations apply to Your use, this Public License does not apply, and You do not need to comply with its terms and conditions.
    3. Term. The term of this Public License is specified in Section 6(a).
    4. Media and formats; technical modifications allowed. The Licensor authorizes You to exercise the Licensed Rights in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter created, and to make technical modifications necessary to do so. The Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any right or authority to forbid You from making technical modifications necessary to exercise the Licensed Rights, including technical modifications necessary to circumvent Effective Technological Measures. For purposes of this Public License, simply making modifications authorized by this Section 2(a)(4) never produces Adapted Material.
    5. Downstream recipients.
      1. Offer from the Licensor – Licensed Material. Every recipient of the Licensed Material automatically receives an offer from the Licensor to exercise the Licensed Rights under the terms and conditions of this Public License.
      2. No downstream restrictions. You may not offer or impose any additional or different terms or conditions on, or apply any Effective Technological Measures to, the Licensed Material if doing so restricts exercise of the Licensed Rights by any recipient of the Licensed Material.
    6. No endorsement. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be construed as permission to assert or imply that You are, or that Your use of the Licensed Material is, connected with, or sponsored, endorsed, or granted official status by, the Licensor or others designated to receive attribution as provided in Section 3(a)(1)(A)(i).

  2. Other rights.

    1. Moral rights, such as the right of integrity, are not licensed under this Public License, nor are publicity, privacy, and/or other similar personality rights; however, to the extent possible, the Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any such rights held by the Licensor to the limited extent necessary to allow You to exercise the Licensed Rights, but not otherwise.
    2. Patent and trademark rights are not licensed under this Public License.
    3. To the extent possible, the Licensor waives any right to collect royalties from You for the exercise of the Licensed Rights, whether directly or through a collecting society under any voluntary or waivable statutory or compulsory licensing scheme. In all other cases the Licensor expressly reserves any right to collect such royalties, including when the Licensed Material is used other than for NonCommercial purposes.

Section 3 – License Conditions.

Your exercise of the Licensed Rights is expressly made subject to the following conditions.

  1. Attribution.

    1. If You Share the Licensed Material, You must:

      1. retain the following if it is supplied by the Licensor with the Licensed Material:
        1. identification of the creator(s) of the Licensed Material and any others designated to receive attribution, in any reasonable manner requested by the Licensor (including by pseudonym if designated);
        2. a copyright notice;
        3. a notice that refers to this Public License;
        4. a notice that refers to the disclaimer of warranties;
        5. a URI or hyperlink to the Licensed Material to the extent reasonably practicable;
      2. indicate if You modified the Licensed Material and retain an indication of any previous modifications; and
      3. indicate the Licensed Material is licensed under this Public License, and include the text of, or the URI or hyperlink to, this Public License.
      For the avoidance of doubt, You do not have permission under this Public License to Share Adapted Material.
    2. You may satisfy the conditions in Section 3(a)(1) in any reasonable manner based on the medium, means, and context in which You Share the Licensed Material. For example, it may be reasonable to satisfy the conditions by providing a URI or hyperlink to a resource that includes the required information.
    3. If requested by the Licensor, You must remove any of the information required by Section 3(a)(1)(A) to the extent reasonably practicable.

Section 4 – Sui Generis Database Rights.

Where the Licensed Rights include Sui Generis Database Rights that apply to Your use of the Licensed Material:

  1. for the avoidance of doubt, Section 2(a)(1) grants You the right to extract, reuse, reproduce, and Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database for NonCommercial purposes only and provided You do not Share Adapted Material;
  2. if You include all or a substantial portion of the database contents in a database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights, then the database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights (but not its individual contents) is Adapted Material; and
  3. You must comply with the conditions in Section 3(a) if You Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 4supplements and does not replace Your obligations under this Public License where the Licensed Rights include other Copyright and Similar Rights.

Section 5 – Disclaimer of Warranties and Limitation of Liability.

  1. Unless otherwise separately undertaken by the Licensor, to the extent possible, the Licensor offers the Licensed Material as-is and as-available, and makes no representations or warranties of any kind concerning the Licensed Material, whether express, implied, statutory, or other. This includes, without limitation, warranties of title, merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, non-infringement, absence of latent or other defects, accuracy, or the presence or absence of errors, whether or not known or discoverable. Where disclaimers of warranties are not allowed in full or in part, this disclaimer may not apply to You.
  2. To the extent possible, in no event will the Licensor be liable to You on any legal theory (including, without limitation, negligence) or otherwise for any direct, special, indirect, incidental, consequential, punitive, exemplary, or other losses, costs, expenses, or damages arising out of this Public License or use of the Licensed Material, even if the Licensor has been advised of the possibility of such losses, costs, expenses, or damages. Where a limitation of liability is not allowed in full or in part, this limitation may not apply to You.
  1. The disclaimer of warranties and limitation of liability provided above shall be interpreted in a manner that, to the extent possible, most closely approximates an absolute disclaimer and waiver of all liability.

Section 6 – Term and Termination.

  1. This Public License applies for the term of the Copyright and Similar Rights licensed here. However, if You fail to comply with this Public License, then Your rights under this Public License terminate automatically.

  2. Where Your right to use the Licensed Material has terminated under Section 6(a), it reinstates:

    1. automatically as of the date the violation is cured, provided it is cured within 30 days of Your discovery of the violation; or
    2. upon express reinstatement by the Licensor.
    For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 6(b) does not affect any right the Licensor may have to seek remedies for Your violations of this Public License.
  3. For the avoidance of doubt, the Licensor may also offer the Licensed Material under separate terms or conditions or stop distributing the Licensed Material at any time; however, doing so will not terminate this Public License.
  4. Sections 1, 5, 6, 7, and 8 survive termination of this Public License.

Section 7 – Other Terms and Conditions.

  1. The Licensor shall not be bound by any additional or different terms or conditions communicated by You unless expressly agreed.
  2. Any arrangements, understandings, or agreements regarding the Licensed Material not stated herein are separate from and independent of the terms and conditions of this Public License.

Section 8 – Interpretation.

  1. For the avoidance of doubt, this Public License does not, and shall not be interpreted to, reduce, limit, restrict, or impose conditions on any use of the Licensed Material that could lawfully be made without permission under this Public License.
  2. To the extent possible, if any provision of this Public License is deemed unenforceable, it shall be automatically reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make it enforceable. If the provision cannot be reformed, it shall be severed from this Public License without affecting the enforceability of the remaining terms and conditions.
  3. No term or condition of this Public License will be waived and no failure to comply consented to unless expressly agreed to by the Licensor.
  4. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be interpreted as a limitation upon, or waiver of, any privileges and immunities that apply to the Licensor or You, including from the legal processes of any jurisdiction or authority.

Creative Commons is not a party to its public licenses. Notwithstanding, Creative Commons may elect to apply one of its public licenses to material it publishes and in those instances will be considered the “Licensor.” The text of the Creative Commons public licenses is dedicated to the public domain under the CC0 Public Domain Dedication. Except for the limited purpose of indicating that material is shared under a Creative Commons public license or as otherwise permitted by the Creative Commons policies published at creativecommons.org/policies, Creative Commons does not authorize the use of the trademark “Creative Commons” or any other trademark or logo of Creative Commons without its prior written consent including, without limitation, in connection with any unauthorized modifications to any of its public licenses or any other arrangements, understandings, or agreements concerning use of licensed material. For the avoidance of doubt, this paragraph does not form part of the public licenses.

Creative Commons may be contacted at creativecommons.org.

How to Cite

El ‘arte’ de la guerra: un análisis del armamento de las guerras civiles yoruba del siglo XIX. (2019). Revista Universitaria De Historia Militar, 8(17), 174-202. https://doi.org/10.53351/ruhm.v8i17.570

Similar Articles

1-10 of 251

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.